An argument has 3 parts:
supporting material, a claim, and a warrant. The names for the pieces of an argument may seem confusing, but they are an easy way for you to double check whether your argument has all its necessary “parts.” Let’s start at the end point of an argument by describing the claim.
Adapted from Toulmin (1958).
What is a claim?
A claim is the conclusion being advanced in the argument. It is a reason the writer offers in support of the thesis. Though it is the conclusion - the point being made in the argument - it actually occupies the place of the first sentence in the argument.
Examples of Claims:
The practice of intentionally using false testimony in a closing argument is unethical because it prevents the jury from making a just decision.
Computer mediated relationship can be interpersonal relationships because the participants experience interdependence.
A hate speech code should not be adopted at MU because it will be struck down by the court system.
The claim provides a link to the thesis, as in the first part of each of these sentences. The claim also gives the REASON you believe the thesis is true, as in the italicized portion of the sentence. The claim should include a reason WHY or answer HOW this is the case.
Each paragraph has only one claim, or reason, the thesis is true.
What is supporting material?
Supporting material is the evidence for the claim. It helps persuade the reader to consider the strength of the claim.
Supporting material is your external evidence, from credible, recent sources, that explains “why” or “how” the claim is believable.
You may need more than one piece of supporting material (external evidence) to explain and fully support your claim.
Examples of Supporting Material:
“The judicial system is based on the premise that a jury will make a just decision when all of the facts are laid before them. When lawyers intentionally use false testimony, the jury will not be able to ascertain the facts of the matter” (Powell, 1983, p. 1047).
“Studies assessing the level of interdependence in online relationships found that respondents rated relations as moderately interdependent. There was a clear sense of mutual influence in these relationships” (Schultz, 1990, p. 87).
“In every case where hate speech codes have been challenged, the courts have criticized the text of the codes for being vague and overbroad. Hate speech codes have been found consistently unconstitutional by the courts” (Black, 1994, p. 13).
For more information on what constitutes good supporting material for an argument, check out the following Writing Tutorials, which we will also cover later in the semester:
What is a warrant?
Each piece of supporting material needs some interpretation by the author to ensure that the reader will make the same conclusion from the supporting material that the author intends. While the supporting material may seem to obviously say what you want it to say, that is not always what the reader infers. Remember, the reader may not agree with your position. You want to help the reader see that the supporting material is clearly tied to the claim and the thesis and supports both.
So, each time you include external supporting material, you need to follow it with an interpretation, or what we will refer to as a warrant. The warrant typically is one sentence that explains the relationship between the supporting material and the claim you make at the beginning of the paragraph.
Since you may need more than one piece of external evidence to support your claim, you will need a warrant (an interpretation) of each piece of supporting material. Never leave your quotations, paraphrases, examples hanging at the end of the paragraph. You need to tell the reader what meaning to make from them to ensure you have made the strongest argument possible.
Examples of Warrants:
It is unethical for lawyers to act in ways that subvert justice.
Interdependence is a characteristic of an interpersonal relationship.
Adopting a hate speech code that will be thrown out of court will waste time and money.
To see the prior claims, supporting material and warrants in paragraph form, look at these compiled examples.
To see some more sample claims, supporting material and warrants in paragraph form, take a look at these examples.
Prepared by Pam Benoit and Kelly Berg-Nellis to accompany Communication 104: Controversies in Communication. Suggestions or comments are welcome. ©Pam Benoit, Professor, University of Missouri. Last updated 01/26/04